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cahnI'm trying to use my other account at least occasionally so I posted about my Yuletide gifts there, including the salon-relevant 12k fic that features Fritz, Heinrich, Voltaire, Fredersdorf, Saint Germain, Caroline Daum (Fredersdorf's wife), and Groundhog Day tropes! (Don't need to know canon.)
Imperial Succesions: I
Date: 2023-01-09 11:47 am (UTC)No, not really. Mind you, it depends on the era we're talking about. Because one reason why the "Third-Century Crisis" is called that is that things had degenerated to a point where the usual way to become Emperor was be a successful general and kill your predecessor (or arrange for others to do so). But if you go all the way back to the start: well, Caesar adopting his grandnephew Octavian as his heir was a post mortem adoption (i.e. in his will, and it was up to Octavian to accept or not), and the will didn't say anything about Octavian following him into political offices. It was very much the typical Roman aristocrat thing to do if you din't have a son: adopt someone from your larger family (or from another family if nephews and the likes weren't available.) Octavian/Augustus of course created the the Principate, but with the big pretense that it wasn't an inheritable monarchy and that it was up to the Senate to choose his successor, though in practice the general assumption was that the Senate would go with whoever would be Augustus' chosen (personal) heir. (And famously Augusts did go through all the alternate heirs he could before being forced to pick his stepson Tiberius because the rest had died like flies, with or without external help.) Still, his finally adopting Tiberius (when Tiberius was already a middle-aged man) was the signal that this was his chosen heir. Tiberius, for all his misanthropy and cynicism in his final years, did adopt not one but two of his young relations before he died (Caligula and Gemellus - if you haven't heard of Gemellus, that's because he didn't survive into what was theoretically his and Caligula's shared reign for long). Caligula had at some point considered making one of his brothers-in-law (the one who was married to Drusilla) into his heir, but that was before said brother-in-law conspired against him (and died). When Caligula was assassinated, I don't think he had an appointed heir as such (he had a biological daughter, who died with him as did her mother, but not a son). Next came Uncle Claudius of Derek Jacobi fame. Now Claudius was actually the first Emperor who did have a biological son - Britannicus - whom he could have made his heir, but didn't, choosing his stepson and nephew Nero instead (for which Nero had his mother to thank). Claudius may or may not have changed his mind about this - he originally adopted Nero, thus signalling Nero as chosen heir, when Britannicus was a child and Nero was a teenager, and clearly the age was a factor here - once Britannicus had grown up, but he died/was probably poisoned first. Nero, of course, died via suicide in the middle of a revolt against him, so didn't appoint an heir. Still, it's worth noting that the first Emperor who did have a biological son to choose didn't do so, that all the Emperors save Caligula and Nero, who died violently, did adopt someone and thus signalled their chosen heir within their life time, and all the Emperors of the Julian-Claudian dynasty became so via adoption, and each case through the ritual of the Senate asking them after their predecessor's death to accept their predecessor's offices.
Next came the year of the four Emperors, and the first three - Galba, Vitellius, Otho - didn't rule long enough to consider heir-appointing, though Otho for example tried to come to an arrangement with Galba (who was old) by suggesting Galba adopt him (no dice, Galba had no intention of doing so). Vespasian, the ultimate winner of the contest, not only had two biological sons but made it pretty clear which of his sons was his chosen heir from the get go. For example, when the Judean War triumph happened, Domitian wasn't positioned anywhere near Dad and Titus but with the rest of the Flavian family, the cousins. Domitian also didn't have any responsible position within the government throughout Vespasian's reign whereas Titus very much was basically junior co-ruler. Now, even with the Flavians, the going-through-the-motions via the Senate asking the next Flavian to accept the offices still happened. (And btw: Titus dying as early as he did, after only about two years of reigning, was of course completely unexpected. Famously he supposedly said on his death bed that there was one action in his life he regretted. Feuchtwanger has Joseph wonder whether Titus means the destruction of the temple, the sacking of Jerusalem or sending Berenice away, whereas the ancient historians who mention this anecdote put their bets on Titus meaning that he didn't kill his younger brother Domitian, because it was either killing Domitian or accepting Domitian would be his heir, but that interpretation very much smacks of hindsight and knowing how Domitian's reign would turn out. In any case, Titus could have adopted one of his cousins if he wanted to provide an alternative to Domitian, and he didn't. Whether this was because he not unreasonably thought he had plenty of time ahead of him or whether he thought Domitian would do as well as anyone, we'll never know. Domitian, as you know from the Josephus trilogy, via adopting the two young sons-of-cousins signalled one or both would have been his heirs but was killed, and thus again what he wanted became redundant. In conclusion: all three Flavian Emperors knew who would succeed them.
Next, we have the series of Emperors that were Gibbon's and many others faves and thereafter were dubbed the "good" Emperors. (The first to call them the "Five Good Emperors", btw, was none other than Niccolo Macchiavelli. Yes, really.) The first one was Nerva, who actually must have been one of the best political survivors ever, because he'd been a close buddy of Nero and managed to survive not only the year of the four Emperors but all three Flavians. He was a Senator, and the reason why he became Emperor at that point was not least because the Senate FINALLY wanted to actually appoint one of their own, their choice, instead of doing what the previous Emperor (whom in this case they hated the guts of) had wanted. However, while Domitian had made himself amply hated with the Senate and in Rome, he was still very popular indeed with the army, and the army wasn't happy. This is where Nerva showed his survival genius once more. He adopted the most popular army general, Trajan, thereaby pre-empting the army (or huge parts of same) turning against him. (Nerva being old, it was obvious Trajan would not have to wait for long.) Supposedly, it was Trajan's young cousin Hadrian, serving with Trajan, who brought him the happy news from Rome.
Trajan then was the Emperor who really did get counted as one of the hallowed Five on his own merit, not just due to surviving. He also was the first Emperor who didn't come from Rome or even Italy but from Spain, which in retrospect is also a huge turning point. He was the Emperor who expanded the Roman borders the most, so if you've seen a map of the Roman Emperor at its maximum size, it would be during the reign of Trajan. Trajan, as most Roman Emperors before him, did not have a biological son. He adopted Hadrian - or did he? Here's the interesting thing: ancient historians were divided on this, with Cassius Dio, writing centuries later, claiming that Trajan's wife Plotina, who was an hugely influential Empress, basically forged the adoption of Hadrian in Trajan's will. Hadrian's parents had died whe he was eleven, and Trajan - the most influential older blood relation - had become Hadrian's and Hadrian's sister's guardian then, and as mentioned Hadrian had served with him, but a formal adoption did not happen until the will. Which had ample precedent, see above, but it's certainly true Plotina was a big supporter of Hadrian's - she'd also arranged Hadrian's marriage to Vibia Sabina, which might not have made the couple in question happy but because Vibiva Sabina was a favoured niece of Trajan's also strengthened Hadrian's bond to the imperial couple - and like him a big Philhellene. That Trajan didn't adopt Hadrian (nor anyone else) before being on his deathbed could mean caution on Trajan's part (as Elizabeth Tudor would say many a century later, everyone prefers the rising to the setting sun, and naming your successor can mean putting on your death shroud), but he certainly did nothing to discourage Hadrian's rise through the ranks. Here's how the wiki entry for Plotina puts the question of the succession:
When a letter Trajan was said to have composed on his deathbed appeared in Rome with Plotina's signature on it, in which he adopted Hadrian and named him successor to the Empire, suspicions were raised. It was rumoured that Attianus and the Empress Plotina had been lovers, both were very fond of Hadrian their ward, both were present at Trajan's deathbed at Selinus in Cilicia in August 117, and that the two had helped secure Hadrian's succession by forging Trajan's will.
Annelise Freisenbruch dismisses this accusation: "Plotina, the silent spouse of the second century, thus joined Livia, Agrippina Minor, and Domitia -
Along with Attianus and Matidia, the grieving widow Plotina accompanied Trajan's body to Seleucia and his ashes to Rome.
It was while a widow that Plotina's best documented action took place. During the year 121, while the emperor Hadrian was inspecting the provinces, Plotina and he engaged in a series of letters discussing who should be the new head of the Epicurean school of philosophy in Athens. She petitioned for a change in the law, which would allow Popillius Theotimus, the acting head of the school, to become the actual head; in response, Hadrian agreed with her argument, and the relevant letters were preserved in a series of inscriptions. Freisenbruch notes, "In stark contrast to her passive anonymity in the literary record, this inscription from Athens recasts Plotina as a highly educated woman, active on behalf of causes close to her heart and with the kind of access to the emperor once enjoyed by Livia."
When Plotina died of illness, she was deified. Her ashes joined Trajan's in the base of Trajan's Column. In 123, Hadrian built a basilica in her honor at Nîmes, in Provence.
As for Hadrian himself: again, no biological son, but of all the Emperors, he went above and beyond securing the succession, arranging not just for the next Emperor to succeed him but the one after that. This was because he had his eyes on young Marcus Aurelius - at this point still called Marcus Annius Verus - who was athe grandson of one of Hadrian's closest friends. However promising, young Marcus was way too young, a literal child when Hadrian made his first choice of successor, so couldn't succeed Hadrian directly unless Hadrian wanted to risk a regent/civil war situation. So his first adopted candidate was supposed to adopt Marcus in turn and also marry his daughter to him, and when that guy died, Hadrian adopted Antoninus Pius (who gave the whole series of Emperors his name - they're often refered to as the Antonines) with the obligation that Antoninus adopt Marcus and marry his daughter to young Marcus instead. (Which Antoninus did.) Now, Hadrian's brother-in-law Servianus was not happy about this, nor was Servianus' grandson Fuscus, one or both might have assumed they'd be the next Emperors instead. There was a conspiracy, and Hadrian had them both executed. Antoninus suceeded without resistance.
Re: Imperial Succesions: I
Date: 2023-01-13 06:56 am (UTC)I am sad that no one seems to know what happened to Domitian's heirs. I hope they were okay (but I suppose the odds are against it -- still, Feuchtwanger at least could have come down one way or the other!)
This is where Nerva showed his survival genius once more. He adopted the most popular army general, Trajan, thereaby pre-empting the army (or huge parts of same) turning against him. (Nerva being old, it was obvious Trajan would not have to wait for long.)
This is awesome!
When a letter Trajan was said to have composed on his deathbed appeared in Rome with Plotina's signature on it, in which he adopted Hadrian and named him successor to the Empire, suspicions were raised.
It seems rather to me that if you were going to try to pass this off as a forgery, you... would maybe not sign it with your own name?
Freisenbruch also notes these kinds of accusations have dogged the spouses of rulers through the centuries.
but I'm totally happy with Lucia being accused in the book, because she is awesomewith the obligation that Antoninus adopt Marcus and marry his daughter to young Marcus instead. (Which Antoninus did.)
Antoninus suceeded without resistance.
I'm relieved to hear these plans went as planned, after all the succession shenanigans with Diocletan and Constantine! (And, for that matter, Domitian.)
Re: Imperial Succesions: I
Date: 2023-01-13 04:41 pm (UTC)They and Basil II (he's one of the medieval Byzantine Emperors, since I'm continuing with the Byzantium podcast), which just about completes a triad of Emperors who were competent at governing and absolutely lousy at succession arranging. In Basil's case, he refused to marry, didn't adopt anyone, had a brother but said brother had only two surviving daughters and Basil after one early attempt with one of them which failed nixed all other potential marriages, and so when Basil died, he did so in the knowledge he'd killed his dynasty - his brother who was over 60 at that point wasn't likely to remarry and father anyone else, and both his nieces were older than 40, i.e. while they still could marry, they weren't likely to reproduce, either. Plus his brother had been deliberately kept away from any office, either military or political. This all but spelled out civil war and a series of 14 (!) Emperors, and Basil - who reigned longer than any other Emperor, either Roman or Byzantine - had to know this would happen. Now, in Basil's case, the explanation might have been justified paranoia (he grew up in the shadow of two coups). Diocletian evidently thought he'd arranged it just fine and Galerius would be the new him (i.e. the one among the four who was the ultimate big cheese keeping everyyone going), and as to why he misread everyone so completely, including Galerius, maybe we're unable to judge this due to having the benefit of hindsight.
...now why Constantine of all the people did not realize that three sons plus two Caesar-appointed nephews spelled a new round ouf internal wars, having spend years of his own life fighting same, I have no idea, but you have to ask as in the case of Marcus Aurelius: what would have been the alternative? Speaking from an amoral cold pov, you could have done what Constantius II did and organized a massacre, thereby reducing the claimants. But that's risky because if you want your new dynasty to continue beyond, well, you, in a violent age with a high mortality rate, you can't just have one heir, who could die at any moment, you do need some spares. Making it clear which of the bunch should be the next Auguustus doesn't mean the rest won't try, but it would at least give one of them a head start. Otoh, the Empire is still too big to be ruled alone, and while Constantine had done just that once he'd killed off the competition, he now was in a personal position to know Diocletian had been onto something with this multiple Emperors solution, and couldn't think of anything better, hence his making all three surviving sons and two of his nephews into Caesars. And lastly, don't underestimate the psychological effect. I mean, however he'd justified it to himself, he had killed the mother of his surviving sons. I wouldn't be surprised if that was yet another reason why he couldn't bring himself to choose one of them and thus by default endanger the others.
I am sad that no one seems to know what happened to Domitian's heirs
One of the unsolved mysteries. I suppose it might simply mean they never held office (which makes sense) nor committed any great crimes and thus weren't deemed noteworthy by future historians, plus if Nerva and/or his partisans had had them killed, surely it would have made some sensational entries in the chronicles. (We certainly know about all the murders of previous claimants that other emperors did, starting with Augustus ordering the death of Caesarion.)
It seems rather to me that if you were going to try to pass this off as a forgery, you... would maybe not sign it with your own name?
True enough, and Plotina after a life time with Trajan could have faked his handwriting or some approximation instead of signing herself. BTW, googling the Hadrian opera has told me Plotina is one of the main characters - as a ghost - and the reviewers are inevitably reminded of Livia (inevitably because due to I, Claudius, Livia is probably the best known Emress in the English speaking world.
Re: Imperial Succesions: I
Date: 2023-01-14 06:48 am (UTC)oh, oof!
Now, in Basil's case, the explanation might have been justified paranoia (he grew up in the shadow of two coups).
Interesting -- and did any of these involve wives? (I'm wondering why he refused to marry.)
I mean, however he'd justified it to himself, he had killed the mother of his surviving sons. I wouldn't be surprised if that was yet another reason why he couldn't bring himself to choose one of them and thus by default endanger the others.
Oh! Yeah... I could see this being a thing. ...I should read the Constantine reading you recced earlier :)
I suppose it might simply mean they never held office (which makes sense) nor committed any great crimes and thus weren't deemed noteworthy by future historians, plus if Nerva and/or his partisans had had them killed, surely it would have made some sensational entries in the chronicles. (We certainly know about all the murders of previous claimants that other emperors did, starting with Augustus ordering the death of Caesarion.)
Oh! This makes me feel a lot better. If they just kind of went under the radar and lived happy and uneventful lives, that would be great! :) Or at least just didn't die early and messily :P
Ha, I have got to get my hands on that opera :) And I did read I, Claudius a very long time ago, enough ago that I've forgotten it all and should read it again. (I never did read Claudius the God, however.)
Re: Imperial Succesions: I
Date: 2023-01-14 04:17 pm (UTC)Scene: Romans are shouting angrily over the death of Germanicus. Livia and Tiberius are inside.
Tiberius: Mother, did it ever occur to you that it might be you they hate, more than me?
Livia: Nothing ever occurs to you that didn't occur to me first. That is the affliction under which I live.
And also the creme de la creme of 1970s actors, in major and minor roles. It made Derek Jacobi's name in the title role, of course, which he plays from when Claudius is ca. 15 years old to his death (and btw his old age make up is abnormally good for the time, so much so that I've seen people surprised Derek Jakobi wasn't old in the 1970s already, despite the fact we see the younger Claudius a lot). Sian Philipps created one of the most memorable female villains ever as Livia. (And like Jacobi, we see Livia go from young woman shortly after the Battle of Actium to old woman in her 90s in the course of the show.) And young John Hurt was the definite Caligula; I've linked you to two scenes when we were discussing Cartagia, who is very much modelled on this performance. Then you have the likes of young Patrick Stewart as Sejanus, leading
Interesting -- and did any of these involve wives? (I'm wondering why he refused to marry.)
Wellllll, how to put this. Basil's mother was Theophanu, not the most famous bearer of that name - that would be the HRE Empress, who was probably named after this earlier Theophanu - who started out being married to Romanos II. Whom she supposedly encouraged to off his father and precedessor Constantine VII., though bear in mind blaming the woman is always the done thing for historians. Romanos himself dies young when Theophanu is just 22, leaving her with two tiny children. She's supposed to be Regent, but the government de facto is done by a palace Eunuch, with whom she argues. Theophanu then starts an affair with the successful general Nikephoros Phokas, a massively popular general who's just managed to end a century of Byzantine defeats by scoring an amazing series of victories against the Saracenes. He gets rid of the Eunuch and marries Theophanu. Now, he doesn't harm the kids, little Basil and little Constantine, but nor does he content himself with the role of Regent. Instead, he becomes little Basil's Co-Emperor. This works out just fine for a few years, and Nikephoros continues with his victory streak, which means the Byzantine Empire actually starts expanding again, after, like I said, a century of defeats and shrinking. But it also means Nikephoros is rarely in Constantinople, since he didn't stop leading from the front lines when he became Emperor, and after a while, there's trouble in Paradise. And lo, Theophanu starts an affair with young, hot John Tsimiskes, nephew of Nikephoros. She leaves the bedchamber unlocked, and John Tismiskes slips in and kills Nikephoros on the night of December 11th, 996. Or at least that's the story acccording the new Emperor John I. Tismiskes. As mentioned earlier for another Emperor, since everyone is Christian now murdering your predecessor without an excuse kinda looks bad, especially since the Patriarch of Constantinople is supposed to crown you. So John T. pulls the old "it was her idea, she seduced me!", does a nominal penance and gets crowned while Theophanu is banished. To legitimize himself further, he marries Theodora, a daughter of Romanos II. from his first, pre-Theophanu marriage. Bear in mind young Basil is also still Emperor; he and John nominally reign together. John then is a very successful Emperor, winning more battles and being good at administration, until he suddenly dies a sudden death that makes people speculate about poison again, this time by the Eunuch Basil Lekaphanos, who has been in the palace administration since Romanos II.'s time and who happens to be the uncle of now not so little anymore Basil II. Basil II has a few more years where Uncle Basil the Eunuch reigns, then he gets rid of him via banishment and then he rules himself for decades, being the third fabulous battles winning general on the throne in a row and having such a tight grip on his subjects that he could stay away from the capital for years on his campaigns without anyone daring to revolt against him, or scheme. But he never, ever marries, keeps brother Constantine in luxurious idleness and does now allow nieces Zoe and Theodora (all the Theodoras, btw, are obviously named after the most famous Theodora, the wife of Justinian) to marry.
Sidenote for German history: When Otto I. had wanted a Byzantine bride born to the purple for his son, future Otto II, Nikephoros' reaction was "no way, German upstart! You're not the Roman Emperor, I am!" When Otto asked again once Emperor later, John, who needed his ursurpation acknowledged by as many people as possible as quickly as possible, said yes, sure and sent his niece, the younger Theophanu, who will in time become Empress of the not yet holy Roman Empire, and will together with her mother in law Adelheid be an awesome regent.
Re: Imperial Succesions: I
Date: 2023-01-15 10:19 pm (UTC)Tiberius: Mother, did it ever occur to you that it might be you they hate, more than me?
Livia: Nothing ever occurs to you that didn't occur to me first. That is the affliction under which I live.
LOL, okay, this is awesome!
Then you have the likes of young Patrick Stewart as Sejanus, leading [personal profile] andraste to observe: "In I, Claudius a character kills her husband to have more sex with Patrick Stewart. I understand her motivation."
HA. ...yeah, fair!
Wellllll, how to put this.
RIGHT. With a personal history like that, I guess it would be more surprising if he did marry, huh.
As mentioned earlier for another Emperor, since everyone is Christian now murdering your predecessor without an excuse kinda looks bad
Your phrasing of this continues to be hilarious to me :D
Sidenote for German history: When Otto I. had wanted a Byzantine bride born to the purple for his son, future Otto II, Nikephoros' reaction was "no way, German upstart! You're not the Roman Emperor, I am!" When Otto asked again once Emperor later, John, who needed his ursurpation acknowledged by as many people as possible as quickly as possible, said yes, sure and sent his niece, the younger Theophanu, who will in time become Empress of the not yet holy Roman Empire, and will together with her mother in law Adelheid be an awesome regent.
Ah, cool! Thanks for always making these connections for me!